Ever since humans created organized armies, victory in wars has been a sum total of many factors — skillful command, training of soldiers, availability of quality weapons, effective supplies, etc. Far from the last place in this military orchestra has always occupied the so-called «fighting spirit», that is, a soldier's readiness to go to kill and be killed. This condition can be ensured in various ways - for example, by instilling patriotic feelings in the warrior or by promising him after victory to plunder the enemy's city.
But rather early on, the idea arose that fighting spirit in a soldier could be awakened through the use of artificial stimulants, be they alcohol or other chemical compounds. This practice, which dates back more than a millennium, eventually led to the emergence of combat pharmacology. And here the scenes from the 1992 cult movie «Universal Soldier» immediately come to mind, the heroes of which repeatedly increase their strength and reaction rate through regular injections of special drugs. In this publication you will learn about the history of the use of psychoactive substances in war.
But rather early on, the idea arose that fighting spirit in a soldier could be awakened through the use of artificial stimulants, be they alcohol or other chemical compounds. This practice, which dates back more than a millennium, eventually led to the emergence of combat pharmacology. And here the scenes from the 1992 cult movie «Universal Soldier» immediately come to mind, the heroes of which repeatedly increase their strength and reaction rate through regular injections of special drugs. In this publication you will learn about the history of the use of psychoactive substances in war.
The ancient Greeks called the state of battle frenzy by the word «lyssa» («Λύκος» - wolf), and the ancient Romans called it «furor heroicus». For centuries, theorists and practitioners of military affairs have been pondering how to learn how to immerse a soldier in a much-needed state. As early as the dawn of history, battle cries and rhythmic martial music were invented to make the masses of people move in sync. An example of the use of such music is given by Plutarch in his biography of the Spartan king Lycurgus.
When the army was in formation because of the appearance of the enemy, the king sacrificed a goat and ordered all the soldiers to wear wreaths and the flute players to play «a song in honor of the Bonfire». He himself began the war song to which the Spartans marched.
«It was a majestic and at the same time formidable sight to see this line of men marching to the beat of the flutes. Their ranks were close together; no one's heart beat in fear; they marched to the danger to the sound of the songs, calm and cheerful. Neither fear nor excessive heat could of course have any place in such a mood; they were calm, but at the same time encouraged with hope and courage, believing in the help of the divine»
— Plutarch testifies.
— Plutarch testifies.
There is a more primitive way to excite a soldier before battle - alcohol. They began to use it in ancient times, but its usefulness is questionable. For example, many soldiers, assessing the benefits of the daily «100 ml of alcohol», were cautious. On the one hand, alcohol helped keep warm in the cold. On the other hand, drinking could lead to loss of concentration in combat and, consequently, to quick death.
From Scandinavia to the Middle East
Another way is to give psychoactive substances to fighters. Mankind learned to create such substances at the dawn of its history. As for their use in combat, the example, rooted in the common man's perception, is connected with the medieval Scandinavians.
The famous are well known - fearsome warriors capable of putting themselves into a state of mental ecstasy before battle and throwing themselves into battle without armor and often without clothes. They gnawed their shields furiously and in battle saw no distinction between their own and others - killing indiscriminately both.
The famous Icelandic skald Snorri Sturluson attributed the appearance of these terrible warriors to the head of the Scandinavian pantheon Odin.
From Scandinavia to the Middle East
Another way is to give psychoactive substances to fighters. Mankind learned to create such substances at the dawn of its history. As for their use in combat, the example, rooted in the common man's perception, is connected with the medieval Scandinavians.
The famous are well known - fearsome warriors capable of putting themselves into a state of mental ecstasy before battle and throwing themselves into battle without armor and often without clothes. They gnawed their shields furiously and in battle saw no distinction between their own and others - killing indiscriminately both.
The famous Icelandic skald Snorri Sturluson attributed the appearance of these terrible warriors to the head of the Scandinavian pantheon Odin.
«One could make his foes become blind or deaf or filled with terror in battle, and their weapons wounded no more than twigs, and his warriors would rush into battle without ringlets, they were fierce as vicious dogs or wolves, biting their shields, and were strong as bears or bulls. They killed their enemies, and neither fire nor iron hurt them. Such warriors were called berserks»
— writes Sturluson.
— writes Sturluson.
Historians have been arguing for decades, trying to make sense of the berserker phenomenon. Even the word itself does not have an unambiguous interpretation: some translate it as «shirtless», others as «bear shirt». As for the nature of berserkers' rage, some are inclined to attribute it to mental illness.
The assumption that berserkers stupefied themselves with an infusion of fly agarics did not appear until 1785 - it was put forward by Swedish scientist Samuel Edmann, who learned about the customs of some East Siberian tribes. Other scholars called Edmann's idea nonsense, but conceded that berserkers could intoxicate themselves with alcohol before battle.
In 1956, American psychologist Dr. Howard D. Fabing again proposed the «flypaper hypothesis» - with his light hand it was so widely disseminated that it became practically an axiom in the eyes of the unsophisticated public.
However, not all scientists who study the phenomenon of berserkers believe that they used fly agarics. Carsten Fatur of the University of Ljubljana put forward the assumption that berserkers took not a fly broth, but black hemlock (Hyoscyamus niger). According to Fatura, the use of hemp may well have caused attacks of the same insane rage characteristic of berserkers.
The corresponding evidences have survived even in European languages. For example, in Serbo-Croatian the verb «buniti», derived from the local name of the hemlock «bunika», means «to fight, to protest», and the expression that translates «they were as if they ate hemlock», is used to describe people in anger.
Béléna provides an increase in the threshold of pain and rage. In addition, in a state of confused consciousness caused by nightshade alkaloids (which are also in béléna), people often do not distinguish between faces - and this may explain why berserkers in battle sometimes could not distinguish their own from others.
Another famous legend of warrior-addicts emerged in the Middle Ages in the Middle East. It is of course about the Assassins, the subjects and followers of the famous «Elder of the Mountain» Hassan al-Sabbah, who founded the Ishmaelite-Nizarite state in the mountains of modern Syria and Iran at the end of the twelfth century.
The corresponding evidences have survived even in European languages. For example, in Serbo-Croatian the verb «buniti», derived from the local name of the hemlock «bunika», means «to fight, to protest», and the expression that translates «they were as if they ate hemlock», is used to describe people in anger.
Béléna provides an increase in the threshold of pain and rage. In addition, in a state of confused consciousness caused by nightshade alkaloids (which are also in béléna), people often do not distinguish between faces - and this may explain why berserkers in battle sometimes could not distinguish their own from others.
Another famous legend of warrior-addicts emerged in the Middle Ages in the Middle East. It is of course about the Assassins, the subjects and followers of the famous «Elder of the Mountain» Hassan al-Sabbah, who founded the Ishmaelite-Nizarite state in the mountains of modern Syria and Iran at the end of the twelfth century.
Hassan al-Sabbah had at his disposal fida'i («sacrificers»), who, at his command, were ready to climb into the most impregnable fortress, kill any high-ranking enemy, and accept the most terrible torments with a smile.
The unquestioning execution of dangerous tasks at his behest and the boundless dedication of the Western chroniclers explained that the assassins used stupefying substances such as hashish.
From coca leaf chewing to «Baltic tea»
One of the discoveries of the Spaniards in 16th century America was the coca plant (Erythroxylum coca), the leaves of which had a stimulating effect. Although the use of coca was declared a pagan rite and forbidden, there are known occasional uses of coca by Spanish soldiers - as a remedy for fatigue on distant marches.
The unquestioning execution of dangerous tasks at his behest and the boundless dedication of the Western chroniclers explained that the assassins used stupefying substances such as hashish.
From coca leaf chewing to «Baltic tea»
One of the discoveries of the Spaniards in 16th century America was the coca plant (Erythroxylum coca), the leaves of which had a stimulating effect. Although the use of coca was declared a pagan rite and forbidden, there are known occasional uses of coca by Spanish soldiers - as a remedy for fatigue on distant marches.
In turn, French colonizers discovered the stimulant cola nut (Cola acuminata) in Africa in the 19th century, which the military quickly became interested in.
A group of scientists managed to isolate an extract from cola pulp and in 1884 created a product based on it, the «gas pedal crunches». Tests of its effect on the human body were conducted in the summer of 1885 in the Algerian desert. The soldiers of the 23d jäger battalion, having received only kola rusks and water before the march, left the fort and moved in the July heat at a speed of 5.5 km/h, without changing the pace for 10 hours in a row. After a day's march of 55 km, they walked back to the fort after a night's rest. Later on, a similar experience was successfully conducted in France itself, this time with the officers of the 123rd Infantry Regiment.
Nevertheless, «cola rusks» were not allowed in the diet of military units because they had a serious side effect - they not only strengthened muscles, but also acted as a powerful sexual stimulant.
Once science learned how to produce synthesized drugs, they immediately found use in the military environment. This was greatly aided by the fact that in 1853 the French surgeon Charles-Gabriel Pravas invented needles for injection, which became widely used in medicine. The first was morphine, which began to be used in the infirmaries as an anesthetic. Its use also had a negative result - rapid addiction.
As modern research shows, the notion that there were a large number of former morphine soldiers in the United States after the Civil War is greatly exaggerated.
World War I was accompanied by the growing popularity of psychoactive substances in the troops - soldiers took opium, heroin and cocaine, which «reduced» the horror of the unprecedented bloody hostilities.
The fact is that at that time the sale of such substances had not yet been criminalized, and they could be purchased in pharmacies. For example, cocaine was the basis of a popular American drug to treat the runny nose, Ryno's Hay Fever. A similar drug was produced by the British firm Burroughs Wellcome & Co. to restore the voice of singers and orators. And after the outbreak of hostilities, interest in this kind of potion increased dramatically as the warring powers began to enact prohibition.
As modern research shows, the notion that there were a large number of former morphine soldiers in the United States after the Civil War is greatly exaggerated.
World War I was accompanied by the growing popularity of psychoactive substances in the troops - soldiers took opium, heroin and cocaine, which «reduced» the horror of the unprecedented bloody hostilities.
The fact is that at that time the sale of such substances had not yet been criminalized, and they could be purchased in pharmacies. For example, cocaine was the basis of a popular American drug to treat the runny nose, Ryno's Hay Fever. A similar drug was produced by the British firm Burroughs Wellcome & Co. to restore the voice of singers and orators. And after the outbreak of hostilities, interest in this kind of potion increased dramatically as the warring powers began to enact prohibition.
Small kits containing cocaine powder or opium pills and a syringe with interchangeable needles were on sale in Great Britain and openly advertised as «a useful gift for friends at the front».
Special designs
Already after the war ended, drugs were universally declared a terrible evil - and states began a fierce fight against their spread. Meanwhile, generals began to think seriously about how to put pharmacology to work for them.
By the beginning of World War II, military commanders were able to articulate exactly what action they wanted from chemical drugs.
- First, they wanted psychostimulants designed to dramatically increase stamina and fighting ability.
- Second, the generals were very interested in anti-anxiety drugs, which remove military doubt and can induce a feeling of euphoria.
- Thirdly, painkillers, which are used when pain and discomfort need to be relieved.
The relevant developments were going on in parallel in several states. For example, Germany introduced pervitin, a methamphetamine that reduced feelings of fatigue, dulled pain and fear, and increased mental clarity. Soldiers who took pervitin were able to march a considerable distance and then fight without rest.
However, side effects were also detected: rapid nervous exhaustion, dehydration, increased body temperature (as a result, it happened that soldiers on pervitin, after sitting in the hot interiors of combat vehicles, could not then go into battle), excessive motor activity and addiction.
Nevertheless, a total of about 200 million pervitin tablets were produced in Germany before the end of World War II. At the same time German commanders demanded that their scientists create a more effective remedy against fatigue.
However, side effects were also detected: rapid nervous exhaustion, dehydration, increased body temperature (as a result, it happened that soldiers on pervitin, after sitting in the hot interiors of combat vehicles, could not then go into battle), excessive motor activity and addiction.
Nevertheless, a total of about 200 million pervitin tablets were produced in Germany before the end of World War II. At the same time German commanders demanded that their scientists create a more effective remedy against fatigue.
In the concentration camp of Sachsenhausen in the fall of 1944 the drug D-9, consisting of a mixture of cocaine, pervitin, and eucodal (a morphine-based painkiller), was tested. The drug was designed for crews of ultra-small experimental submarines, which had to perform combat missions in conditions of extreme narrowness and cold.
In order to test the effect of «D-9» the prisoners in the camp were forced to make multi-day marches along the route - during a day they had to pass 90-112 kilometers. Prisoners were given no more than two hours a day to rest. But the expected effect was not achieved. The subjects experienced short-term euphoria with trembling hands, depression of the central nervous system, weakened reflexes and thinking activity, increased sweating, and experienced something like a hangover syndrome.
The U.S. and British military used benzedrine, a type of amphetamine. It was, however, also used in peacetime - and by the beginning of World War II had been a commercial success as a popular antidepressant.
In order to test the effect of «D-9» the prisoners in the camp were forced to make multi-day marches along the route - during a day they had to pass 90-112 kilometers. Prisoners were given no more than two hours a day to rest. But the expected effect was not achieved. The subjects experienced short-term euphoria with trembling hands, depression of the central nervous system, weakened reflexes and thinking activity, increased sweating, and experienced something like a hangover syndrome.
The U.S. and British military used benzedrine, a type of amphetamine. It was, however, also used in peacetime - and by the beginning of World War II had been a commercial success as a popular antidepressant.
In the 1930s, Japan synthesized the stimulant hiropon (pronounced «philopon» in Europe), which was used in the army in the form of injections and pills. With the right dosage, hiropon relieved fatigue during tiresome hikes, relieved fear and uncertainty. It also sharpened vision, for which it was called "cat's eye" in the imperial army.
Because of its characteristics, hiropon was given not only to soldiers but also to the night-shift workers at military enterprises. Later on, hiropon was also given to day shift workers to help them cope with increasing fatigue and malnutrition.
After the war, the drug quickly spiraled out of control as it continued to be produced in laboratories and sold to civilians. The drug was fabulously cheap - one shot cost ten yen, which in Japan was about six cents in those days.
In 1951, the Japanese government banned the production of hiropon and it moved to clandestine laboratories run by gangster gangs. The fight against them was long and hard. The mass production of hiropon was finally eliminated only in 1964, on the eve of the Olympics in Tokyo.
Because of its characteristics, hiropon was given not only to soldiers but also to the night-shift workers at military enterprises. Later on, hiropon was also given to day shift workers to help them cope with increasing fatigue and malnutrition.
After the war, the drug quickly spiraled out of control as it continued to be produced in laboratories and sold to civilians. The drug was fabulously cheap - one shot cost ten yen, which in Japan was about six cents in those days.
In 1951, the Japanese government banned the production of hiropon and it moved to clandestine laboratories run by gangster gangs. The fight against them was long and hard. The mass production of hiropon was finally eliminated only in 1964, on the eve of the Olympics in Tokyo.
Progress is not static
Already after the war, the production of the drug phenamine appeared. Its composition was similar to that of pervitin and had the same side effects. Phenamin worked for about 8 hours, and then the body needed a long time to recover.
The drug caused immunity decrease, vision impairment, kidney and liver dysfunction and was quickly addictive. Therefore, they did not dare to introduce it widely in the troops and supplied it only to special units sent on any combat missions.
The U.S., developing its own line of combat pharmacology, developed new amphetamine drugs after the war, which supplied their units during the wars in Korea and Vietnam.
The official use of amphetamines in the U.S. Army was banned in 1992 (at that time by the head of the Air Force, General Merrill McPeak). However, this did not prevent rumors that they continue to be used - unofficially.
The incident in Afghanistan (April of 2002) - American pilots Harry Schmidt and William Umbach, after taking two pills of amphetamine (in the slang «speed» or «Go Pills»), mistakenly bombed a Canadian allied convoy near Kandahar, killing four people and injuring eight.
During the investigation, Schmidt's lawyer blamed the incident on psychostimulants the pilot was forced to take by his commanders.
In the 1960s, American scientists began experimenting with doping drugs. Anxiolytics were designed to reduce feelings of fear and anxiety and to reduce obsessive behaviors, while actoprotectors prevented the development of fatigue and increased performance.
Thus came bromantan, sidogluton (mesocarb), and so on, which reduced feelings of fear, increased endurance, physical strength, and resistance to the cold. But they also had their side effects - for example, when taking sidnogluton one could experience a sharp decrease in appetite, an increase in blood pressure, a feeling of anxiety and increased irritability, and sometimes even hallucinations and delirium.
All of these drugs quickly spilled over into sports - although their use is prohibited and athletes caught doping are disqualified.
As for further military developments, for example, in the 1990s and 2000s in the United States and Great Britain they studied the effects on the body of Provigil, a drug based on modafinil, developed primarily to treat drowsiness in narcolepsy. Provigil was given to soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan - it was found that for the period from 12 to 17 hours reduces the need for sleep and rest, reduces sleepiness due to fatigue, promotes concentration.
Thus came bromantan, sidogluton (mesocarb), and so on, which reduced feelings of fear, increased endurance, physical strength, and resistance to the cold. But they also had their side effects - for example, when taking sidnogluton one could experience a sharp decrease in appetite, an increase in blood pressure, a feeling of anxiety and increased irritability, and sometimes even hallucinations and delirium.
All of these drugs quickly spilled over into sports - although their use is prohibited and athletes caught doping are disqualified.
As for further military developments, for example, in the 1990s and 2000s in the United States and Great Britain they studied the effects on the body of Provigil, a drug based on modafinil, developed primarily to treat drowsiness in narcolepsy. Provigil was given to soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan - it was found that for the period from 12 to 17 hours reduces the need for sleep and rest, reduces sleepiness due to fatigue, promotes concentration.
However, it can also cause increased nervousness, agitation, irritability, dizziness, and headaches. Some of these effects may last for a long time.
Now, for obvious reasons, information about new research in the field of combat pharmacology is not leaked to the press. But, most likely, they are underway.
Now, for obvious reasons, information about new research in the field of combat pharmacology is not leaked to the press. But, most likely, they are underway.